حمایت حقوقی از شخصیت‌های خیالی (کاراکترها) در امریکا؛ رهاوردی برای حقوق ایران

نوع مقاله : مقاله علمی - پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 دانشیار گروه حقوق خصوصی، دانشکدۀ حقوق، دانشگاه قم، قم، ایران

2 دانشجوی دورۀ دکتری حقوق خصوصی، دانشکدۀ حقوق، دانشگاه قم، قم، ایران

چکیده

استفاده از شخصیت‌های خیالی در تبلیغ و ترویج کالاها و خدمات یکی از قدیمی‌ترین و شناخته‌شده‌ترین شکل‌های تجارت است که سالانه گردش مالی چند میلیون دلاری به‌همراه دارد. شهرت و محبوبیت بیشتر شخصیت‌های خیالی بسیار فراتر از نقش آنها در آثار اصیلی است که برای نخستین بار در آن جلوه‌گر شده‌اند. به‌علاوه، بسیاری از کاراکترها خارج از چارچوب هر نوع اثر خاص خلق می‌شوند و در نتیجه، ممکن است بدون سازوکار و حمایت قانون باقی بمانند. بنابراین، تضمین حمایت منصفانه از خالقان و صاحبان آنها در برابر سودجویی غیرمجاز از خلاقیتشان اهمیت می‌یابد. نوشتار پیش رو در پی پاسخ به این پرسش است که آیا می‌توان جایگاهی برای شخصیت‌های خیالی به‌دنبال زیست مستقلانۀ آنها از آثار اولیه در نظام‌های حقوقی ترسیم کرد؟ برای پاسخ به این پرسش تلاش می‌شود از طریق روش توصیفی- تحلیلی و با تأسی از حقوق امریکا، ضمن بررسی ظرفیت نظام‌های حقوقی کپی‌رایت وعلائم تجاری در حمایت از کاراکترها، وضعیت حمایت از آنها نیز هنگام ورود به قلمرو مالکیت عمومی مورد بررسی قرار گیرد. بدون شک تبیین نحوۀ حمایت از شخصیت‌های خیالی و خالقان آنها و نیز بررسی سایر ابعاد مربوط به این حق، مانند تشخیص معیارهای نقض و سهم حوزۀ عمومی از آنها، علاوه بر اینکه یاریگر رویۀ قضایی خواهد بود، سبب اعتلای فعالیت‌های فرهنگی شده، بر غنای ادبیات حقوقی ایران خواهد افزود.

کلیدواژه‌ها

عنوان مقاله [English]

Legal Protection of Fictional Characters in American Law; The object lesson for Iranian Law

نویسندگان [English]

  • Mohammad Salehi Mazandarani 1
  • Amid Mohammadi 2
1 Associate Professor in Private Law, Faculty of Law, Qom University, Qom, Iran
2 Ph.D. Student in Private Law, Faculty of Law, Qom University, Qom, Iran
چکیده [English]

Using fictional characters in the marketing and advertising of goods and services is one of the oldest and the best known form of merchandising with a multi-million dollar annual turnover. The fame and popularity of most fictional characters go far beyond their role in the original works which first featured. In addition, many characters are created outside the context of any particular work and may therefore remain without mechanism and law protection. So, ensuring fair protection to the creators and their owners against unauthorized profit from their creativity is necessary. This paper seeks to answer the question whether it is possible to delineate a position for fictional characters to pursue their independent lives from primary works in legal systems? To answer this question, through a descriptive and analytical approach and by following American law, the authors try to examine the capacity of copyright and trademark systems and the situation which characters enter into the public domain. Undoubtedly, explaining how to protect the fictional characters and their creators, as well as, exploring other aspects of this right, such as identifying infringement criteria and the public domain's contribution to these rights, in addition to assist the jurisprudence, will enhance cultural activities and augment the richness of Iranian legal literature.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Literary Characters
  • Visual Character
  • Copyright
  • Trademark
  • Public Domain

مراجع

  1. الف) فارسی

    1. امامی، اسداله (1390)، حقوق مالکیت صنعتی، تهران: نشر میزان.
    2. باقری‌نژاد، زهره (1391)، «آثار تربیتی انیمیشن‌های غربی بر تربیت کودکان»، فصلنامۀ علمی- تخصصی پژوهشنامۀ تربیت تبلیغی، سال اول، پیش‌شمارۀ دوم.
    3. براهنی، رضا (1368)، قصه‌نویسی، تهران: نشر البرز.
    4. بهزاد، فریال (1385)، «انیمیشن و سینمای کودک»، نشریۀ فرهنگ و هنر، فارابی، دورۀ 16، ش 2.
    5. پورنوری، منصور (1383)، حقوق مالکیت معنوی در دادگاه علامت تجاری و اختراعات، اتهران: نتشارات مهد حقوق.
    6. حبیبا، سعید و حسین‌زاده، مجید (1392)، «تحلیل دکترین رقیق‌سازی (دکترین نقض دوم) در نظام حقوقی حاکم بر علائم تجاری»، فصلنامۀ مطالعات حقوق خصوصی، دورۀ 43، ش 1.
    7. زرکلام، ستار (1387)، حقوق مالکیت ادبی و هنری، تهران: انتشارات سمت.
    8. صمدی، اعظم (1387)، جایگاه تجارت شخصیت‌ها در حقوق مالکیت فکری، پایان‌نامۀ کارشناسی ارشد حقوق مالکیت فکری، تهران: دانشگاه شهید بهشتی.
    9. محمدی، عمید و همکاران (1396)، «حمایت از حق شهرت در پرتو حقوق مالکیت فکری با رویکرد تطبیقی»، پژوهش‌های حقوق تطبیقی، دورۀ 20، ش 3.
    • ولاستون، آرتوران (1375)، فرهنگ بزرگ کمانگیر انگلیسی- فارسی، تهران: انتشارات کمانگیر.

     

    ب) خارجی

    1. Ahmad, Tabrez and Mondal, Debmita. (2011), “The Conflicting Interests in Copyrightability of Fictional Characters”, Availableat at:
    2. Arrow, Benjamin M. (2011), “Real-Life Protection for Fictional Trademarks”, 21 Fordham Intell. Prop. Media & Ent. L.J. vol.21, No.1, Article 4. pp. 111-171.
    3. Available at: http://scholarship.law.marquette.edu/iplr/vol9/iss1/3
    4. Available at: http://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/elr/vol11/iss1/10
    5. Available at: http://repository.law.miami.edu/umeslr/vol9/iss2/6
    6. Available at: https://ecollections.law.fiu.edu/lawreview/vol9/iss2/15
    7. Available at: https://ideaexchange.uakron.edu/akronintellectualproperty/vol8 /iss1/4
    8. Available at: https://scholarship.kentlaw.iit.edu/cklawreview/vol86/iss3/11
    9. Available at: https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/faculty_scholarship/2072
    10. Available at: https://via.library.depaul.edu/jatip/vol9/iss2/4
    11. Beach, Stephanie J. (2017), “Fact and Fiction: Amending Right of Publicity Statutes to Include Life Story and Fictional Character Rights”, Seton Hall Legislative Journal, Vol.42, Issue.1. pp. 131-162.
    12. Boorstin, Daniel J. (2014), “Fictional Character Merchandising in The United States of America and United Kingdom”, Chaptert 5, pp. 151-192. Available at:
    13. Brylawski, E. Fulton (1974), “Protection of Characters—Sam Spade Revisited”, BULL. COPYRIGHT SOC’Y U.S.A. No. 22.
    14. Burgunder, Lee B. (2012), “The Scoop on Betty Boop: A Proposal to Limit Overreaching Trademarks”, Loyola of Los Angeles Entertainment Law Review, Vol.32, Available at: http://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/elr/vol32/iss3/1
    15. Cariou, Prince (2013), “Copyright Law-Fair-Use-Second Circuit Holds That Appropriation Artwork Need Not Comment on the Original to Be Transformative”, Harvard Law Review, Vol.127, No.4.
    16. Chander, Anupam and Sunder, Madhavi (2007), “Everyone's a Superhero: A Cultural Theory of Mary Sue Fan Fiction as Fair Use”, California Law Review, Vol.95, Issue 2, Article7, pp. 597-626. Available at: https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/californialawreview
    17. Coe, Samuel J. (2011), “The Story of a Character: Establishing the Limits of Independent Copyright Protection for Literary Characters”, CHICAGO-KENT LAW REVIEW. 1305, Vol.86, Issue.3, pp. 1305-1322.
    18. Cook, Angela D. (1999), “Should Right of Publicity Protection be Extended to Actors in the Characters Which They Portray”, 9 DePaul J. Art, Tech. & Intell. Prop. L., Vol.9. pp. 309-352.
    19. Deamer, Michael (2017), “DC Comics V. Towle: Protecting Fictional Characters Through STEWARDSHIP”, Berkeley Technology Law Journal, Vol.32, pp. 437-468. Available at: https://dx.doi.org/10.15779/Z388W38251
    20. Delgado García, Jaime (2018), “Immortality Through Trademarks: A Study of Fictional Characters Under US Trademark Law”, Available at: SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3335132or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3335132
    21. Elliott, Joanne Catherine (1997), “Character Merchandising in New Zealand: The Validity of A Distinction Between 'Real' and 'Fictional' Characters”, LLB(HONS) Research Paper Intellectual Property Law. pp. 1-49.
    22. Feldman David B. (1990), “Finding a Home for Fictional Characters: A Proposal for Change in Copyright Protection”, California Law Review, Berkeley; Vol.78, pp. 687-720.
    23. Foley, Kathryn M. (2009), “Protecting fictional characters: Defining the elusive trademark-copyright divide”, Connecticut Law Review, Vol.41, No.3.
    24. Ginsburg, Jane C. (2017), “Intellectual Property as Seen by Barbie and Mickey: The Reciprocal Relationship of Copyright and Trademark Law, Journal of the Copyright Society of the USA”, Vol.65, Columbia Public Law Research Paper No.14-567.
    25. Goldberger, Benjamin A. (2003), “How the Summer of the Spinoff Came to Be: The Branding of Characters in American Mass Media”, Loyola of Los Angeles Entertainment Law Review, Vol.23. Available at: http://digitalcommons.lmu.edu /elr/vol23/iss2/3
    26. Heitmann, Michael (2015), “Have You Seen Sam Spade?: How Literary Characters Are Denied Proper Copyright Protection”, Law School Student Scholarship. Seton Hall Law. pp. 1-28. http://scholarship.shu.edu /student_scholarship/794
    27. Helfand, Michael Todd (1992), “When Mickey Mouse Is as Strong as Superman: The Convergence of Intellectual Property Law to Protect Literary and Pictorial Characters”, STAN. L. REV. Vol.44.
    28. Joshua, Jessica (2009), “Fictional Characters and the Right of publicity: Policies, History, and Conflict”, Entertainment Law, Vol.21. pp. 1-29.
    29. Kate, ONeill (2003), Against Dicta: “A Legal Method for Rescuing Fair Use from the Right of First Publication”, California Law Review, Vol.89, No.2.
    30. Kellman, Leon (1958), “The Legal Protection of Fictional Characters”, Brooklyn Law Review Journal, Vol.25.
    31. Kewalramini, Nishant and Hedge, Sandeep (2012), “Character Merchendising” Journal of Intellectual Property Right, Vol.17.
    32. Koller, Chantal (2019), “Character wars: Trademark and copyright protection for fictional characters”, Online: Available at: https://www.novagraaf.com /en/insights/character-wars-trademark-and-copyright-protection-fictional-characters.
    33. Kurtz, Leslie A. (1986), “The Independent Legal Lives of Fictional Characters”, Wis. L. REV.
    34. Kurtz, Leslie A. (1994), “The Methuselah Factor: When Characters Outlive Their Copyrights”, Miami Ent. & Sports L.Rev.Vol.11, Iss.2, pp. 437-452. Available at: http://repository.law.miami.edu/umeslr/vol.11/iss2/
    35. Lim, Tze Ping (2018), “Beyond Copyright: Applying a Radical Idea-Expression Dichotomy to the Ownership of Fictional Characters”, VAND. J. ENT. & TECH. L., Vol. No.21, 95-144.
    36. Mariani, Jyme (2015), “Lights! Camera! Infringement? Exploring the Boundaries of Whether Fan Films Violate Copyrights”, Akron Intellectual Property Journal: Vol.8: Iss.1 , Article 4. pp. 117-170.
    37. McCutcheon, Jani (2018), “Works of Fiction: The Misconception of Literary Characters as Copyright Works”, Journal of the Copyright Society of the USA (Forthcoming). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3263155or http:// doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3263155, pp. 1-38.
    38. McKay, Kate and Brett (2013),  “A Man's Life, Character, On Manhood, On Virtue: What Is Character? Its 3 True Qualities and How to Develop It”, Online, Available at: https://www.artofmanliness.com
    39. Metsola, Asko (2016), “So Tarzan, Zorro, and Mickey Mouse went to a bar”- Trademark protection of public domain characters, Department of Accounting and Commercial Law, Hanken School of Economics.
    40. Nickles, Christine (1999), “The Conflicts Between Intellectual Property Protections when a Character Enters the Public Domain”, UCLA Entertainment Law Review, Vol.7(1). 133-168.
    41. Niro, Dean D. (1992), “Protecting Characters through Copyright Law: Paving a New Road upon Which Literary”, Graphic, and Motion Picture Characters Can All Travel, DePaul L. Rev, Vol.41, Issue 2, Article.6, 359-394. Available at: https://via.library.depaul.edu/law-review/vol41/iss2/4
    42. Port, Kenneth L. (1998), “Copyright Protection of Fictional Characters in Japan: The Popeye Case - It's Not Just a Mick[e]y Mouse Affair”, Wisconsin International Law Journal, Vol.7, No.1 pp. 205-229
    43. Provenzano, Annie (2014), “How to Protect a Literary Character Through Copyright and Trademark”, The Faculty of the Journalism Department, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, pp. 1-31.
    44. Robinson, David Alain (1991), \’A Fair Use Analysis of Trademark Parody: Cliffs Notes”, Inc. v. Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Loy. L.A. Ent. L. Rev, Vol.11.
    45. Said, Zahr K. (2013). “Fixing Copyright in Characters: Literary Perspectives an A Legal Problem”, Cardozo Law Review, Vol.35. pp. 769-829.
    46. Sander, J. C., (2012). “The end of arbitrary findings of secondary meaning: call for the expansion of trademark status of literary characters”, Intellectual Property Law, Bulletin, No. 17,(1).
    47. Saval, Joshua, (2014). “Copyrights, Trademarks, and Terminations: How Limiting Comic Book Characters in the Film Industry Reflects on Future Intellectual Property Issues for Character Law”, FIU L. Rev, Vol.9, No.2, Article 15.
    48. Schienke, Gregory S., (2005). “The Spawn of Learned Hand-A Reexamination of Copyright Protection and Fictional Characters: How Distinctly Delineated Must the Story Be Told?”, Intellectual Property L. Rev. Vol.9, Issue 1, Article 3.
    49. Schreyer, Amanda, (2015). “An Overview of Legal Protection for Fictional Characters: Balancing Public and Private Interests”, CYBARIS®, AN INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW REVIEW, Vol.6: Iss.1, Article.3. pp.49-95.
    50. Schwabach, Aaron, (2011). Fan Fiction and Copyright: Outsider Works and Intellectual Property Protection, Thomas Jefferson School of Law, USA, Ashgate Publishing Limited.
    51. Shaffy, Kourosh, (2018): “Can Stephen Colbert Bring Back Stephen Colbert? Alternate, Fictional Personas in Copyright”, Columbia Journal of Law & The Arts, Vol.41, No.4. pp. 289-317.
    52. Skoller, Jenna, (2015). “Sherlock Holmes and Newt Scamander: Incorporating Protected Nonlinear Character Delineation into Derivative Works”, COLUMBIA JOURNAL OF LAW & THE ARTS, No.38. pp. 557-600.
    53. Smith, Carrie Ayn, (2014). “A Character Dilemma: A Look into Trademark Protections for Characters from Creative Works”, Law School Student Scholarship. Seton Hall Law. pp. 1-28. https://scholarship.shu.edu/student_scholarship/579
    54. Spahn, Kenneth E, (1992). “The Legal Protection of Fictional Characters”, University of Miami Entertainment & Sports Law Review, Vol.9, Iss.2, pp. 331-348.
    55. SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1839361or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1839361
    56. Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary, (1998). Random House, 2d ed.
    57. WIPO, (1994), “Character Merchandising”, Report prepared by the International Bureau, WO/INF/108, pp. 1-34.
    58. Wollaston, A. (1996), The large Kamangir dictionary English– Persian, Kamangir publication, Tehran.
    59. Wood, Ann Christelle. (2014), “The Idea/Expression Dichotomy in Copyright Law as related to Fictional Characters”, Faculty of Law, University of Johannesburg, A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree], pp. 1-57.
    60. Zecevic, Jasmina, (2006), “Distinctly Delineated Fictional Characters that Constitute the Story Being Told: Who Are They and Do They Deserve Independent Copyright Protection?”, 8 VAND. J. ENT. & TECH. L.
    61. Zissu, Leonard (1981), “Whither Character Rights: Some Observations”, The Eleventh Donald C. Brace Memorial Lecture, J. Copyright Soc'y U.S.A., Vol.29.
مطالعات حقوق تطبیقی
دوره 12، شماره 1
بهار و تابستان
فروردین 1400
صفحه 191-218

فایل ها

هم رسانی

ارجاع به این مقاله

آمار